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= Well-being =
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Introduction
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Well-being{{efn|Also spelled 'wellbeing'}} is what is intrinsically
good for a person. Also called 'welfare' and 'quality of life', it is
a measure of how well life is going for someone. In the broadest
sense, it covers the balance of all positive and negative aspects of a
person's life. More narrowly, it refers only to positive degrees and
contrasts with ill-being, which denotes negative ones. In this sense,
well-being is what egoists typically seek for themselves and altruists
aim to enhance in others, serving as a central goal of many individual
and societal endeavors.
Researchers discuss different types of well-being by how they are
measured, who they belong to, and which domain of life they affect.
Subjective well-being refers to how a person feels about and evaluates
their life. Objective well-being encompasses factors that can be
assessed from an external perspective, such as health, income, and
security. Individual well-being concerns the quality of life of a
particular person, whereas community well-being measures how well a
group of people functions and thrives. Forms of well-being belonging
to specific domains of life include physical, psychological,
emotional, social, and economic well-being.
Theories of well-being aim to identify its essential features.
Hedonism argues that well-being ultimately depends on the balance of
pleasure over pain. Desire theories hold that the satisfaction of
desires is the source of well-being. Objective list theories assert
that a combination of diverse elements is responsible for well-being.
Often-discussed contributing factors include feelings, emotions, life
satisfaction, achievement, finding a sense of meaning, interpersonal
relationships, and health.
Well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry. Positive psychology
studies the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning.
Philosophy examines the nature and theoretical foundations of
well-being and its role as a goal of human conduct. Other related
disciplines include economics, sociology, anthropology, medicine,
education, politics, and religion. Although the philosophical study of
well-being dates back millennia, research in the empirical sciences
has intensified only since the second half of the 20th century.
Definition
======================================================================
Well-being is what is intrinsically or non-instrumentally good for a
person or in their self-interest. It is a measure of how well a
person's life is going for them. In the broadest sense, the term
covers the whole spectrum of quality of life: the balance of all
positive and negative aspects of a person's life. More narrowly,
'well-being' refers only to positive degrees and contrasts with
ill-being, which denotes negative ones. Its precise definition is
disputed and varies across disciplines and cultures. Some
characterizations focus on a single element, such as happiness, while
others include multiple components, such as good physical and mental
health, positive emotions, an engaged and flourishing lifestyle, inner
harmony, and positive interpersonal relationships. Some definitions
additionally include material conditions, such as income, safety, and
environmental quality. Outside the academic context, the term
'well-being' is used more loosely in diverse social and cultural
settings, typically as a synonym of health and happiness. Although
discussions of well-being usually focus on humans, the term can also
refer to the quality of life of non-human animals.
As a person-specific{{efn|In a slightly different sense, the term is
also used to talk about the state of a group of people.}} value,
well-being contrasts with impersonal value, or 'value simpliciter'. A
thing has impersonal value if it is good for the world at large by
making it a better place, without being restricted to one specific
person. Well-being, by contrast, is what is good for or relative to
someone. While personal and impersonal values often align, they can
diverge, for example, if an individual seeks personal gain that is bad
from a wider perspective. The exact relation between these two types
of value is disputed. According to one proposal, impersonal value is
the sum of all personal values.
Well-being is typically understood as an intrinsic or final value,
meaning that it is good in itself, independent of external factors.
Things with instrumental value, by contrast, are only good as means
leading to other good things, like the value of money. Well-being is
further distinguished from moral, religious, and aesthetic values,
which describe what is ethically right, sacred, or beautiful.
Well-being may or may not overlap with other values. For instance,
donating money to a charity may be morally good, even if it does not
increase the donor's well-being.
The terms 'quality of life', 'good life', 'welfare', 'prudential
value', 'personal good', and 'individual utility' are often used as
synonyms for 'well-being'. Similarly, the words 'pleasure', 'life
satisfaction', and 'happiness' are employed in overlapping ways with
'well-being'. However, their precise meanings differ in technical
contexts like philosophy and psychology: pleasure refers to individual
feelings about what is attractive; life satisfaction is a positive
attitude a person has towards their life as a whole; happiness is
sometimes identified with life satisfaction or understood as a
positive balance of pleasure over pain.{{efn|Pleasure, life
satisfaction, and happiness are central to the subjective side of
well-being, and some theories assert that they are the only components
of well-being.}}
Well-being is a crucial goal of many human endeavors on both
individual and societal levels. It is the object of various attitudes
and emotions, such as concern for others as well as feelings of pity,
envy, and ill will. Well-being is the state that egoists seek for
themselves, and altruists aim to increase for others. Many disciplines
examine or are guided by considerations of well-being, including
ethics, psychology, sociology, economics, education, public policy,
law, and medicine. The word 'well-being' comes from the Italian term .
It entered the English language in the 16th century.
Types
======================================================================
Since the definition of well-being spans several dimensions,
researchers have proposed various frameworks to capture its different
forms. Types of well-being can be categorized by how they are
measured, to whom they apply, and which domain of life they affect.
Some researchers limit their inquiry to one specific type, while
others investigate the interrelations among them.
Subjective and objective well-being
=====================================
Subjective well-being is the measure of how people feel about and
evaluate their lives, encompassing both affective and cognitive
components. A person has high affective well-being if they have many
pleasant experiences and few unpleasant ones. High cognitive
well-being occurs when a person evaluates their life positively,
making a global assessment that things are going well.
Subjective well-being is measured using questionnaires in which
individuals report the quality of their experiences. Single-item
measures provide the simplest approach, focusing on a single scale,
such as asking participants to rate how content they are with their
lives on a scale from 1 to 10. Multi-item scales include questions for
distinct aspects of subjective well-being, with the advantage of
reducing the influence of the wording of any single question. They
have separate questions for domains such as the presence of positive
affect, the absence of negative affect, and overall life satisfaction,
which they combine into a comprehensive index.
Objective well-being encompasses objective factors indicating that a
person's life is going well. Unlike subjective well-being, these
factors can be assessed and quantified from an external perspective.
They include personal, social, economic, and environmental aspects
such as health, level of education, income, housing, amount of
leisure, and security.
By relying on objective data, measures of objective well-being are
less affected by cultural and personal biases that can influence
self-reports. However, it is not universally accepted that objective
well-being is a form of well-being in the strictest sense. This doubt
is based on the idea that well-being is essentially a subjective
phenomenon tied to a person's experience. According to this view,
objective factors influence and indicate well-being but are not
themselves forms of well-being.
Some studies focus on either subjective or objective well-being.
Others combine both perspectives to provide a more comprehensive
picture and counterbalance their shortcomings. Although subjective and
objective well-being often align, this is not necessarily the case.
For example, a person scoring low on objective measures, such as low
income and frail health, may nonetheless be subjectively happy.
Individual and community well-being
=====================================
The distinction between individual and community well-being is central
to understanding how societies flourish at different levels and for
evaluating trade-offs in policy decisions. Individual well-being
concerns the quality of life of a particular person and is the main
focus of disciplines such as psychology and some schools of
philosophy. Community well-being applies the concept of well-being to
a group of people. It encompasses a broad range of economic, social,
environmental, and cultural aspects that influence how the community
functions and thrives while ensuring that the community's needs are
fulfilled.
One view sees community well-being as the sum of the degrees of the
well-being of each individual, while others emphasize that the
relation between the two is more complex. Individual and community
well-being often support each other. For instance, high individual
well-being can lead a person to contribute more to their community,
and a well-functioning community can make its members happy. However,
there can also be tensions, like when changes necessary for community
well-being conflict with the individual well-being of certain members.
Closely related to community well-being are categories defined for
specific demographic groups. For instance, child well-being is about
the quality of life of children, including factors such as health,
education, material security, and social development in a loving and
nurturing environment. Other examples include women's, elderly,
student, and employee well-being.
Other types
=============
Various types are distinguished by the domain of life to which they
belong. Physical well-being concerns the domain of the body, including
the capacity to engage in physical activity and the absence of illness
and bodily pain. It includes general health considerations and the
ability to perform one's social role without being hindered by
physical limitations.
Psychological well-being, also called mental health, is a state of
mind characterized by internal balance.{{efn|In a slightly different
sense, the term is also used as a synonym for subjective well-being.}}
It involves the absence or successful management of disorders and
disturbances, together with the abilities to cope with challenging
situations, maintain positive relationships, and cultivate personal
growth. It is closely linked to intellectual, spiritual, and emotional
well-being. Intellectual well-being encompasses well-functioning
cognitive abilities and traits, such as critical thinking,
problem-solving, and curiosity. Spiritual well-being is a state in
which people find purpose in life and have inner peace,
self-confidence, and a sense of identity. Emotional well-being
involves the capacities to comprehend, articulate, and regulate
emotions, together with an overall positive mood.
Hedonic well-being refers to a life rich in pleasurable experiences
and devoid of suffering. Eudaimonic well-being is a form of personal
fulfillment in which an individual flourishes by striving for
excellence and actualizing their innate potential.
Social well-being concerns the quality and number of interpersonal
connections, including how well a person functions in their social
environment and the level of social support available to them.
Economic well-being refers to the economic situation of a person, such
as their current employment situation, job opportunities, financial
stability, and other relevant resources and skills. Further types of
well-being include financial, cultural, political, and environmental
well-being.
Theories of well-being
======================================================================
Theories of well-being aim to identify the essential features or
components that different forms of well-being have in common. They
focus on the intrinsic nature of well-being, rather than external
causes or conventional indicators used to measure it. For example,
money and medicine can contribute to well-being as external causes but
are not themselves forms of well-being. A traditionally influential
approach categorizes theories of well-being into hedonism, desire
theories, and objective list theories. This classification does not
cover all theories, and the different categories are not always
mutually exclusive. In some cases, distinct theories recommend
different lifestyles, while in others, they advocate for the same
lifestyle but provide different reasons why it is good.
Hedonism
==========
Hedonism about well-being, also called 'prudential hedonism', holds
that pleasure and pain are the only factors of well-being. It states
that how well a person's life goes depends entirely on how it feels to
live it, expressed as the balance of pleasure over pain. According to
this view, a person who experiences frequent joy and contentment has
high well-being, whereas someone who is constantly in pain and
suffering has low well-being. One view sees pleasure and pain as
bodily sensations, like the pleasure of eating delicious food and the
pain of injuring a leg. However, hedonists generally take a wider
perspective, characterizing pleasure and pain broadly as any
experience that feels good or bad. This broader understanding includes
the intellectual pleasure of reading an engaging book and the sorrow
of losing a loved one. According to quantitative hedonism, the value
of each episode of pleasure and pain depends only on its intensity and
duration. Qualitative hedonism, an alternative perspective,
additionally considers non-quantitative factors, arguing that some
pleasures are intrinsically superior to others because of their
qualitative character, even if they have the same intensity and
duration.
One criticism of hedonism acknowledges that some pleasures have value
but rejects that this is the case for all of them. According to this
view, certain pleasures have no value and may even be bad for a
person, such as sadistic pleasures from torturing animals. Another
objection questions whether pleasure is the only thing of value for
individuals, citing things like virtue, achievement, friendship, and
the satisfaction of desires as distinct sources. An influential
counterexample to hedonism, proposed by philosopher Robert Nozick
(1938-2002), imagines an experience machine that simulates a life
filled with pleasures, which would be ideal from the perspective of
hedonism. Pointing out that life in this virtual simulation lacks
authenticity, Nozick argues that mere pleasure, by itself, is not the
only source of value.
Desire theories
=================
According to desire theories, the satisfaction of desires is the only
source of well-being. This means that individuals have well-being when
they get what they want. Desires are subjective attitudes directed at
things or states, such as the desire to eat potato chips or become
famous. Desires present conditions that are either fulfilled or
frustrated depending on whether the desired state of affairs is
actualized. Desire theories have some overlap with hedonism because
people desire pleasure and the satisfaction of desires is typically
pleasurable. However, desire theorists argue that people may desire
other goods besides pleasures, emphasizing the diversity of desires
and the individual differences from one person to another. For
instance, some people prioritize family and health, while others
primarily seek career success, wealth, knowledge, or spiritual
enlightenment. As a result, the concrete path to well-being can vary
greatly from person to person based on their subjective preferences.
Critics of desire theories point out that people sometimes desire
things that are bad for them. For example, a child's desire to eat
nothing but candy could lead to serious health problems and diminish
rather than increase well-being. In response, some modified versions
of desire theories have been proposed to avoid this counterexample.
They argue that only the satisfaction of well-informed desires
contributes to well-being, excluding desires in which individuals do
not fully consider or understand negative consequences. Another
objection holds that desire satisfaction is only good in a derivative
sense. It asserts that a person desires something because they believe
that it is good, meaning that the value primarily resides in the
desired object rather than in the satisfaction of the desire.
Objective list theories
=========================
Objective list theories state that a person's well-being depends on
several factors. These factors can include subjective components, like
pleasure and desire-satisfaction, but also encompass objective factors
that enhance a person's well-being independent of whether they
subjectively care about them. Objective list theorists have proposed
diverse lists of items to cover a wide variety of elements
contributing to well-being, such as health, friendship, achievement,
knowledge, and autonomy. Some versions argue that each element on the
list is valuable by itself, while others hold that they complement
each other and only promote well-being when combined.
One criticism of objective list theories asserts that they define an
incoherent concept of well-being by including diverse elements that
have little in common. Another objection challenges the proposed
objectivity of objective list theories, arguing that well-being is
essentially a subjective phenomenon. According to this view, what is
good for a person depends on their subjective attitude, and imposing
an external definition of what is good leads to alienation.
Others
========
One categorization distinguishes between subjectivist, objectivist,
and hybrid theories. Subjectivist theories understand well-being as a
purely subjective phenomenon characterized by the individual's own
perspective, mental states, and attitudes. Objectivist theories rely
only on objective factors in their definition, like health and
achievement. Hybrid theories incorporate both subjective and objective
components. For example, one version states that well-being consists
in the subjective appreciation of objective goods.
A further distinction is between monist and pluralist theories. Monist
theories hold that a single good is responsible for well-being,
meaning that all types of well-being share the same essential
features. Pluralist theories see well-being as a diverse phenomenon
that manifests in many forms without a single essence characteristic
of all of them. For instance, objective list theories are pluralist
views, whereas hedonism and desire theories are monist views.
Perfectionism identifies well-being with excellence by fulfilling
human nature. It holds that one needs to exercise and master key human
abilities, such as rationality, knowledge, health, and dignity, to
live well. As an objectivist perspective, perfectionism asserts that
the value of these goods does not depend on what a person thinks about
them. Eudaimonism is a closely related view, asserting that someone
has high well-being or flourishes in life by actualizing their inborn
potential. This view emphasizes that well-being is not a passive state
but an active process. It manifests in an engaged lifestyle where
individuals exercise virtues and rely on practical rationality to
guide their decision-making.
Value fulfillment theories see the satisfaction of evaluative
attitudes as the basis of well-being. They are similar to desire
theories, which focus on desire satisfaction. However, value
fulfillment theories adopt a broader perspective that considers
diverse evaluative attitudes in addition to desires, such as beliefs,
feelings, and judgments about what is good.
Most theories assume that the definition of well-being applies equally
to everyone. Variabilism rejects this assumption and argues that
different conceptions of well-being apply to different individuals.
One form of variabilism asserts that the nature of well-being in
children differs from that of adults. Similarly, some theories of
well-being are species-relative, proposing that the essential features
of well-being vary across distinct species, for example, that the
well-being of humans differs from the well-being of non-human animals.
Components and contributing factors
======================================================================
To avoid the deep disagreements surrounding the theories of the
essential features of well-being, some researchers examine components
and contributing factors, independent of whether they are integral
parts or external causes. For example, there is wide agreement that
positive emotions, achievements, interpersonal relationships, and
health typically contribute to well-being in some form, despite
academic disagreement about their precise roles.
Feelings, emotions, and life satisfaction
===========================================
Pleasure promotes well-being as a positive feeling about what is
attractive. Pain, by contrast, diminishes well-being as a negative
feeling about what is aversive. Pleasure and pain are closely tied to
the brain's reward system, influencing motivation and behavior by
reinforcing beneficial actions and discouraging harmful ones. They
shape how individuals perceive their lives and interact with their
social and physical environments. Pleasure and pain are commonly seen
as opposites that counterbalance each other. This view suggests that
the negative value of experiencing intense pain can be compensated by
the positive value of experiencing intense pleasure. A different
perspective argues that their relation is more complex because they
influence experience, motivation, and well-being in distinct ways that
are not always symmetrical. Following this idea, one view holds that
avoiding pain is more important than seeking pleasure.
Pleasure and pain are often tied to emotions, which are temporary
states of arousal, such as joy, hope, anger, and fear. Emotions
include subjective experiences of pleasure and pain alongside other
psychological phenomena, such as the evaluative assessment of a
situation and a disposition to engage in certain types of behavior.
For example, fear evaluates a situation as dangerous and is associated
with a behavioral disposition to flee. Additionally, emotions are
linked to physiological changes, like sweating, and bodily expressions
that signal the emotional state to others. High well-being is
associated with frequent positive emotions and infrequent negative
ones. Despite their unpleasantness, negative emotions are nonetheless
integral to healthy functioning by making people aware of problems and
steering behavior away from harmful outcomes. Emotions are closely
related to moods, which usually last longer and have a less specific
origin and evaluative assessment, such as cheerfulness, serenity,
boredom, and depression. Moods typically shape well-being in more
subtle ways by coloring perception and motivation over time, often
without becoming the primary focus of attention.
Life satisfaction is a person's subjective judgment about how well
their life is going. As a comprehensive evaluation, it is not limited
to one particular domain, like employment or financial status.
Instead, it considers all relevant areas of life. Similarly, it is not
restricted to how a person currently feels but encompasses a long-term
assessment of one's life as a whole across time. For example, a person
may be overall satisfied with their life even if they are experiencing
intense stomach pain at the moment. Individuals vary in how they
arrive at their judgment of life satisfaction. For instance, some rely
on instinctive gut feelings while others engage in deliberate and
systematic reflections. Sometimes, individuals make inaccurate
assessments and deceive themselves about their true quality of life,
like cases of false happiness.
Achievements and meaning
==========================
Researchers also examine how achievements promote well-being, often by
focusing on the sustained effort involved in setting a goal considered
to be valuable and striving to actualize it. Achievements take many
forms, such as earning an educational degree, attaining athletic
success, contributing to scientific research, writing a well-received
novel, starting a successful company, and bringing up a happy family.
The contribution of achievements to well-being depends not only on
their quantity but also on their significance. For example, a
difficult achievement that helps many people, like finding a cure for
cancer, may contribute more to the achiever's well-being than a
trivial and pointless achievement, like determining the exact number
of crumbs in a cookie jar. High achievement typically has a positive
influence on other factors of well-being. For example, it can help a
person make more friends and improve their standard of living. In some
cases, however, it has negative side effects, like when an obsession
with success increases anxiety and alienates loved ones.
Finding meaning in life is a closely related factor of well-being. A
sense of purpose can organize a person's life and daily activities,
motivate them to keep striving in the face of hardship, and produce
positive emotions as they progress toward goals they consider
valuable. It involves a judgment about the role and value of one's
life in a wider context, but its precise characterization is disputed.
Subjectivists argue that meaning is a subjective phenomenon. They
suggest that people actively create it and make their lives meaningful
by dedicating themselves to what they love. Objectivists contend that
meaning does not depend on subjective preferences but is grounded in
objective features of reality. Some people seek meaning by promoting
concrete general values, like truth, moral goodness, and beauty.
Others pursue it in religious practice by trying to realize a
supernatural purpose. Further suggested sources of meaning include
altruism, creativity, and self-actualization. The inability to find
meaning in life can lead to an existential crisis, associated with
anxiety and spiritual confusion.
Friendship and other relationships
====================================
Positive social connections and interactions are further key elements
of well-being. In addition to the intrinsic joy of engaging with
others, social networks can offer material and emotional support
during challenging times. They help people build trust, share values,
promote the exchange of information, and provide access to new
opportunities. Different types of social relationships may influence
well-being in different ways, such as the contrasts between friends,
family members, romantic partners, co-workers, and teammates.
Researchers often focus specifically on the connection between
friendship and well-being. Friendship is a voluntary social
relationship between people characterized by mutual concern, trust,
and support. Friends tend to spend time with each other, enjoy each
other's company, and know personal facts about one another. Friendship
can promote emotional support, a sense of belonging, self-esteem,
practical guidance, and reduced stress. Different forms of friendship
can influence well-being differently. A central aspect is the strength
of the connection, distinguishing close friends from distant ones.
Strength is determined by factors such as time spent together, trust,
emotional intensity, and readiness to support each other in difficult
times.{{efn|Theorists also use other factors to distinguish types of
friendship. For example, a friendship based on the enjoyment of each
other's company is different from one based on achieving a common
goal. An influential characterization by Aristotle holds that in the
highest form of friendship, each friend cares about the other for the
other's own sake.}} The number of friends a person has is another
relevant factor, and having many friends is usually beneficial.
However, if a person already has numerous friends, making even more
friends may not significantly impact their well-being. Some people
prefer large friend networks with looser connections, while others
have few but strong friendships.
Health and disabilities
=========================
Health can play a central role in how people live their lives,
reflecting the overall condition in which an organism functions
properly, both physically and mentally. Good physical health is
associated with high energy and the ability to perform everyday
activities. Physical illnesses and disabilities can negatively impact
well-being by causing pain, limiting mobility, and reducing the
capacity to engage in enjoyable or necessary activities. Good mental
health is a state of internal equilibrium in which mental capacities
function as they should. Mental disorders are associated with some
form of psychological impairment: they typically disrupt the
equilibrium by causing distress and may limit the activities a person
can engage in. Discrimination can amplify the negative effects of
socially stigmatized illnesses and disabilities.
Despite its general impact, health does not fully determine happiness,
and some individuals affected by severe illnesses and disabilities
report high levels of subjective well-being. The availability of
healthcare services can mitigate negative effects by providing
treatments to restore health or manage and alleviate symptoms.
Similarly, adopting a healthy lifestyle, like regular physical
activity and a balanced diet, is associated with long-term benefits to
well-being.
Thought patterns and knowledge
================================
Thought patterns can influence well-being positively or negatively by
shaping how the world is interpreted and experienced. For example,
frequent negative thoughts about past events can trigger anxiety and
depressive moods. Accordingly, various psychotherapeutic and religious
schools of thought propose methods and practices to promote thought
patterns conducive to well-being. For example, a key element of
cognitive behavior therapy is to identify and reframe automatic
negative thoughts, while various Eastern religious traditions, such as
Buddhism, recommend meditation and mindfulness. Related mental factors
of well-being include tendencies that lead people to act against their
own self-interest, such as impaired self-control in the form of
addictions, and cognitive biases leading to irrational
decisions.{{efn|More broadly, well-being may also be influenced by a
person's worldview as a set of basic beliefs and values that shape how
people experience, understand, and interact with reality.}}
Philosophers examine how knowledge affects well-being, like when
knowledge helps people avoid dangers or solve problems. It is
controversial whether all forms of knowledge contribute to well-being,
such as the contrast between trivial knowledge of unimportant facts
and practically relevant knowledge about oneself or deep insights into
general truths of the world. In addition to knowledge, many related
epistemic goods contribute to well-being, such as intelligence,
problem-solving skills, creativity, open-mindedness, understanding,
and wisdom. The value of epistemic goods is reflected in the emphasis
given to education to foster the development of the minds of students.
Education helps individuals understand and master their environment,
promoting well-being by opening up new opportunities and increasing
people's control over their lives.
Other components
==================
Autonomy and freedom are often-discussed factors of well-being. They
concern the possibility to choose, the ability to make informed
decisions without coercion, and the capacity to act without being
constrained by external forces.{{efn|The exact definitions of these
terms are disputed.}} Individuals with a high level of autonomy and
freedom tend to be more satisfied by having control over their lives.
This enables them to decide between important options and choose a
life that reflects their desires, preferences, and values. However,
these conditions may not automatically lead to well-being and can
sometimes have negative consequences. For example, a person lacking
mental maturity and wisdom may freely engage in short-sighted
pleasures with instant gratification while ignoring negative long-term
consequences.
Eudaimonic conceptions of well-being stress the importance of
character traits and virtues. Character traits are stable and
consistent aspects of personality that influence how people think,
feel, and act. Traits associated with well-being include wisdom,
courage, kindness, justice, temperance, and gratitude. Virtues are
character traits that promote ethical excellence, such as dispositions
to act morally and follow ethical principles. Virtue-based theories of
well-being argue that virtue can be its own reward, for example,
because living a morally upright life can be a fulfilling experience.
However, virtue and well-being may also conflict in some cases, for
instance, when altruistic service to a greater good requires personal
sacrifice.
Various work-related elements impact overall well-being, such as the
character of the work performed, income, job security, work-life
balance, and personal relationships to coworkers and
superiors.{{efn|Conversely, the well-being of workers also affects
their productivity: unhappy workers tend to be less efficient and call
in sick more often whereas happy workers are more motivated and tend
to deliver higher-quality work.}} Job loss and unemployment are
associated with a decrease in well-being because of factors such as
financial strain caused by lost wages, weakened social connections,
and a reduced sense of purpose and social status. The government and
political situation, another determinant, influences the happiness of
the population by affecting security, equality, social services, and a
general trust in society. Accordingly, governments that uphold the
rule of law, provide good services, and control corruption tend to
foster higher levels of well-being. Opportunities to democratically
participate in political decision-making are also linked to increased
well-being. Similarly, the physical environment plays a role, with
factors like housing conditions, pollution, noise, and access to
nature and recreational areas.
The genetic makeup can significantly impact the general level of a
person's well-being, with some studies suggesting that genetic
influences can explain up to one third of the differences in
subjective well-being. For example, the life satisfaction of identical
twins, who share genes, is more alike than the life satisfaction of
non-identical twins. Other relevant biological factors include
neurotransmitters and hormones.
Well-being changes throughout the lifespan as individuals transition
from childhood through adolescence and adulthood to old age,
reflecting factors such as educational and occupational
responsibilities, family life, financial stability, and health.
Well-being tends to decline from childhood until around age 40
globally. There are region-specific differences for the second part of
life: some regions see a further decline towards old age, while the
level remains stable in others and increases in some. There is little
gender difference in well-being in most countries.
Digital technologies, such as the internet and artificial
intelligence, influence the well-being of individuals in various
areas, such as information access, social relationships, work-life
balance, and health. The effects are mixed, including benefits, like
new learning opportunities, and risks, like social media addiction. In
many areas, a proper understanding of the uses and dangers of a
technology is essential for avoiding its potential harmful effects.
Models
========
Models of well-being are frameworks for understanding and measuring
well-being. They clarify its nature and seek to show how its different
components and contributing factors interact. Psychologist Ed Diener's
tripartite model identifies three essential components of subjective
well-being: the presence of positive affect, the absence of negative
affect, and a positive evaluation of one's life as a whole.
Psychologist Carol Ryff proposed the six-factor model of psychological
well-being. It states that the main elements are self-acceptance,
personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and
positive relations with others. Focusing on social well-being,
sociologist Corey Keyes developed a five-component model based on
social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social
actualization, and social acceptance.
According to Martin Seligman's PERMA theory, well-being has five
elements: positive emotions, engagement by following one's interests,
interpersonal relationships, finding meaning in life, and
accomplishments in the pursuit of success and mastery. Psychologist
Michael Bishop developed the network model of well-being, which
includes components such as feelings, emotions, attitudes, traits, and
interactions with one's environment. This model emphasizes that the
different components form a causal network by influencing and
reinforcing each other in complex ways.
In various fields
======================================================================
As a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors,
well-being is relevant to many fields of inquiry. Grouped under the
umbrella term 'science of well-being', some disciplines investigate
the nature and components of well-being directly, while others study
its causes, effects, or correlates in specific domains of life. A
central motivation of academic inquiry is the belief that well-being
can be improved through appropriate measures. Some of these measures
focus on individual lifestyle changes. Others take the form of
societal interventions to alter how economic, medical, educational,
workplace, and political institutions function.
Positive psychology
=====================
Positive psychology is the branch of psychology dedicated to the study
of well-being and related phenomena, like happiness and flourishing.
It examines the factors and conditions of optimal human functioning.
This inquiry focuses both on individual factors, like the experience
of pleasure and pain and the role of character traits, and on societal
factors, such as the way social institutions influence human
well-being.
At the emotional level, positive psychologists examine the different
types of positive emotions, such as joy, amusement, and love. They
seek to understand the conditions under which positive emotions arise,
how they contribute to overall well-being, and how they differ from
negative emotions. At the cognitive level, positive psychology studies
how intelligence, wisdom, and creativity improve quality of life. It
further explores the relation between cognitive and affective
processes, for example, how cognitive interpretations evoke emotions
and how emotions prompt thought processes.
Another central subfield concerns the role of personality, in
particular, how individuals differ regarding personality traits and
how these traits impact well-being. The VIA model, an influential
framework in positive psychology, analyzes personality based on six
main virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and
transcendence. A closely related topic focuses on the role of the
self, which encompasses the way a person conceptualizes and imagines
themselves. Important factors for well-being are self-esteem, or how a
person evaluates themselves, and authenticity, or the degree to which
a person's behavior is subjectively consistent with their sense of
self. A further area explores the role of social and physical
circumstances. This includes the effects of trust and cooperation on
group well-being and dilemmas in which self-interest conflicts with
group interest. Having close relationships and engaging in altruistic
behavior are generally beneficial to a person's well-being.
In addition to the study of the different components and causes of
well-being, positive psychologists seek to understand how well-being
changes over time. For example, they examine the effects of major
negative events, such as the death of a child or bankruptcy, and the
psychological features that help some people maintain their level of
well-being despite significant adversity, such as self-regulation and
an optimistic outlook. Another key topic is the problem of
interventions or how to design and implement methods to reliably
increase well-being. Researchers explore a wide range of strategies,
including cognitive reframing, cultivating gratitude, acts of kindness
toward others, and different forms of meditation. The possibility of
creating long-term gains in well-being is challenged by the set-point
theorythe hypothesis that each person has a stable level of subjective
well-being. It suggests that this level is mostly fixed by factors
that are hereditary or determined early in life, implying that any
change to well-being is only temporary and will eventually revert to
the individual's baseline.
Philosophy
============
While positive psychologists focus on empirical research of specific
factors, philosophers place more emphasis on the general nature,
overall function, and conceptual foundations of well-being. They
explore its essential features by developing and comparing theories of
well-being, such as hedonistic theories, desire theories, and
objective list theories. Philosophers also investigate the
foundational principles of the scientific study of well-being.
Considering that well-being has both subjective and evaluative
aspects, they seek to determine whether scientific objectivity is
possible and to what extent well-being can be quantified and compared
between individuals.{{efn|The topic of quantification also concerns
problems of aggregation, like the questions of how individual
components of well-being determine overall well-being, how the
well-being of individuals is related to group well-being, and how
well-being at different moments is combined into well-being over
extended periods.}}
Some philosophers challenge the concept of well-being, understood as
what is ultimately good for someone. For instance, philosopher G. E.
Moore (1873-1958) rejects the idea that something can be good relative
to a person, asserting instead that all values are impersonal. Another
criticism suggests that the concept of well-being is incoherent,
arguing that it groups together diverse elements without a shared
essence.
Despite these criticisms, well-being plays a central role in ethics
and value theory. Welfarism is the view that well-being is the only
basic source of value. It holds that everything else, like
intelligence and health care, is only valuable to the extent that it
promotes well-being and reduces ill-being. Pure welfarists argue that
the raw sum of everyone's{{efn|Some definitions are limited to the
well-being of humans while others take the well-being of all sentient
creatures into account.}} well-being is all that matters. Impure
welfarists consider additional factors, such as ensuring that
well-being is distributed equally among people. This modification aims
to avoid situations in which some people have abundantly good lives at
the expense of others who experience severe deprivation.
Another topic concerns the relation between moral virtue and
well-being. According to one view, already considered in ancient Greek
philosophy, the two always accompany each other, meaning it is in
everyone's self-interest to act virtuously. An alternative perspective
denies this close connection, stating that, at least in some cases, a
virtuous person has to compromise their own well-being for the greater
good. Philosophers further explore the relation between well-being and
death. One position questions the common-sense idea that death is
generally bad for a person. It argues that since death marks the end
of a person's existence, there is nothing that can benefit or harm the
person anymore. Animal ethicists apply the concept of well-being to
non-human animals, examining what animal well-being consists in and
how it affects the moral obligations of humans toward non-human
animals. Commonly discussed factors of animal well-being include
adequate food, shelter, and social interaction, and the fulfillment of
species-specific needs.
Other fields
==============
Welfare economics studies the influence of economic activity on
well-being. One of its primary goals is to develop standards for
evaluating and choosing between competing policy proposals based on
their potential benefit to well-being. This field uses metrics such as
distribution of income, gross domestic product, consumer surplus, and
compensating variation. For example, distributing income more equally
is usually beneficial for well-being but needs to be balanced against
potential negative side effects, such as a decline in productivity.
The economics of happiness, a closely related field, focuses
specifically on the connection between economic phenomena and
individual happiness. One of its findings is the Easterlin paradox:
within a given country, people with higher incomes tend to be happier
than those with lower income, yet overall happiness does not trend
upward as the average income of everyone increases.
The growing academic interest in well-being is also reflected in the
political sphere, challenging the gross domestic product as the main
indicator of national success. As a result, indices to track, compare,
and promote the well-being of populations have been established at
both national and international levels. Examples include the World
Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, Bhutan's Gross National
Happiness, and the UK Measures of National Well-being. Following this
trend, policymakers are relying on well-being metrics and related
factors to inform their decision-making processes.{{efn|These efforts
are often linked to welfare states, which aim to promote the social
and economic well-being of their populations through measures such as
affordable healthcare, social security, and universal access to
education.}} For instance, they may use the WELLBY scale to quantify
how policy decisions influence the well-being of large populations.
The study of well-being also affects the field of law, where
considerations about how to protect and promote well-being can
influence legislation.
Sociologists examine the relation between well-being and social
phenomena, such as race, socioeconomic status, and education. They use
both subjective and objective metrics, with some studies dedicated to
well-being in general, while others focus on specific domains, such as
work, family, and housing, or on particular demographic groups, such
as employees or the elderly.
Anthropologists are interested in the concept of well-being in
different cultures. They seek to understand what people at different
times and places associate with a good life, such as the
culture-specific norms, values, and practices for achieving personal
well-being. A key assumption in this field is that the concept of
well-being involves a commitment to what is desirable, functioning as
an evaluative framework for guiding behavior and assessing lifestyles.
Anthropologists compare these commitments and frameworks across
different cultures, like the differences between Western and
non-Western conceptions of well-being. They describe the similarities
and differences, typically without taking a position on which view is
superior.{{efn|Some researchers argue that standard measuring
practices are biased toward Western perspectives and lead to results
that are not globally representative. For example, several studies
about the positive effects of spending time in nature were criticized
for privileging the perspective of Western metropolitan dwellers while
neglecting other groups, such as rural indigenous people.}}
Diverse perspectives on well-being are found in religious and other
traditional belief systems, where well-being often serves as a goal of
spiritual practice. In various traditional forms of Hinduism, the
highest kind of well-being is not determined by objective external
conditions. Instead, it depends primarily on experiential knowledge of
the self, brought about through practices like self-inquiry and
meditation. Buddhism identifies suffering as a central aspect of all
existence. It aims to produce well-being by eliminating the causes of
suffering, such as desire and ignorance, achieved through the practice
of Buddhist virtues, like compassion, loving-kindness, and equanimity.
From the perspective of Confucianism, well-being consists in virtuous
activity as a process leading to sagehood and is associated with
harmonious relationships and social responsibility. According to
Taoism, a life high in well-being is characterized by effortless
action that is in harmony with the Tao--the natural way of the
universe--and guided by spontaneous dispositions. The Christian
tradition holds that the personal connection to God is a central
factor of well-being, which may manifest in virtuous activity or
contemplation of God. According to the teachings of Islam, well-being
is achieved by dedicating one's life as much as possible to worshiping
Allah and fulfilling His will, as expressed in the Quran.
Well-being is also a topic in various biological sciences with a focus
on physiological factors. Research from twin studies suggests that
genetic composition is an impactful determinant. Other physiological
factors include neurotransmitters and hormones that impact positive
feelings, such as endorphin, dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin, and
cortisol. Biologists are also interested in the evolutionary origins
of subjective well-being. This perspective understands happiness and
unhappiness not as ends but as tools to regulate behavior, guiding it
toward fitness-enhancing outcomes. It holds that subjective well-being
is a product of natural selection: its underlying hereditary traits
are passed on to future generations if they promote survival and
reproduction. In neuroscience, researchers try to uncover the neural
correlates of well-being using neuroimaging techniques, such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging.
The problem of well-being plays a central role in medicine since
medical interventions typically aim to restore, secure, and enhance
patient well-being. Considerations of well-being also affect the
treatment of incurable diseases, like Parkinson's disease. In such
cases, therapies aim to minimize negative effects, helping patients
lead productive and fulfilling lives despite their illness. However,
well-being is not the only consideration governing medical
interventions, and the commitment to patient autonomy is another core
principle. This can lead to conflicts when patients act against their
self-interest and reject treatments that would improve their
well-being.
Ancient and medieval
======================
The study of well-being originated in antiquity, often in the form of
discussions on how to lead a good life. Socrates () rejected power,
fame, wealth, and the hedonistic pursuit of pleasure as paths to
lasting happiness, arguing instead that wisdom and virtue are key
elements of well-being. He held that lifelong learning and
philosophical reflection cultivate an examined life, promote moral
excellence, and align with the good. Influenced by Socrates, Aristotle
(384-322 BCE) developed a eudaimonic theory of well-being. He
maintained that well-being is the purpose of life and is achieved
primarily by practicing virtues, such as acting in accordance with
reason, justice, courage, and temperance. Aristotle distinguished
three general factors that contribute to well-being: goods of the
soul, such as intellectual and moral virtues; goods of the body, such
as health; and external goods, such as wealth and good relations to
others. In Hellenistic philosophy, starting in the 4th century BCE,
the Epicureans and the Stoics considered well-being an internal state
independent of external conditions. The Epicureans argued that
pleasure is the only source of well-being and that it is best achieved
through moderation and the cultivation of a tranquil state of mind.
The Stoics emphasized discipline and rational virtue as the key to
well-being.
In ancient India, various teachings about well-being are found in the
Hindu tradition, formulated in the first two millennia BCE in the
Vedas, Upanishads, and the Smriti literature. They include the ideas
that a person should fulfill their duty relative to their social role
and stage of life, and that one should attain knowledge about how the
self and the world are ultimately one. A central element of the
Buddhist conception of well-being is the avoidance of suffering. The
Buddha (roughly 6th century BCE) identified craving as the root cause
of suffering, proposing a set of practical recommendations, such as
right conduct and mindfulness, to overcome it. In ancient China,
Confucius (6th to 5th century BCE) emphasized the role of social
virtues in leading a good life, with a particular focus on benevolence
or humaneness. In the Taoist tradition, Laozi (6th century BCE) saw
living in harmony with the natural order of the universe through
effortless, spontaneous action as the ideal form of life.
During the medieval period in the West, Christian thinkers associated
well-being with spiritual salvation. Augustine (354-430 CE) argued
that humans are not fully in control of their well-being and instead
depend on divine grace. He maintained that true happiness is
achievable only in the afterlife. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE)
similarly emphasized the role of the divine, proposing that a beatific
vision of God is the highest form of well-being. A religion-focused
conception of well-being is also found in the Islamic tradition and
the teachings of the Quran, which asserts that material pleasures are
temporary and that genuine well-being depends on religious faith and
complete dedication to Allah.
Modern and contemporary
=========================
In the modern period, secularization and scientific progress shifted
the focus from religious theories to naturalistic explanations,
particularly starting in the late 17th century with the Age of
Enlightenment. Voltaire (1694-1778), Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778), Denis Diderot (1713-1784), Adam Smith (1723-1790), and
François-Jean de Chastellux (1734-1788) rejected a religious focus on
otherworldly well-being, emphasizing instead the pursuit of earthly
happiness through reason, empirical inquiry, and social progress.
As the father of classical utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
proposed the felicific calculus as a method to measure, compare, and
aggregate degrees of pleasure and pain, considering factors such as
their intensity and duration. He also suggested a direct link between
well-being and right action, arguing that individuals and governments
should promote "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". His
student John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) modified Bentham's idea,
proposing that the contribution to well-being depends on the quality
of the pleasure. He held that higher pleasures of the mind are more
valuable than lower pleasures of the body, even if they have the same
intensity and duration. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) rejected the
utilitarian pursuit of happiness and the individualist market economy
associated with Adam Smith, arguing instead that a sense of community
and meaningful work are essential to well-being.
The emergence of psychology as an empirical science prompted research
into the internal factors of well-being, such as William James's
(1842-1910) introspective research into the connection between
happiness and religious experience. The psychoanalytic theory of
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) characterized the pursuit of pleasure and
the reduction of tension as central aims of life. His early
collaborator Carl Jung (1875-1961) explored how well-being depends on
individuation as a form of psychological growth in which conscious and
unconscious aspects are integrated.
After the Second World War, researchers began conducting large-scale
surveys and proposing broad social indicators to track well-being
within nations and in cross-national comparisons. Based on their
results, Richard Easterlin (1926-2024) formulated the Easterlin
paradoxthe observation that richer individuals in a nation report
higher happiness than poorer ones, although the average happiness of
the population does not increase as the nation's average income rises.
Various models of well-being were proposed in the second half of the
20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, including Ed
Diener's (1946-2021) tripartite model of subjective well-being, Carol
Ryff's (born 1950) six-factor model of psychological well-being, and
Martin Seligman's (born 1942) PERMA model. Derek Parfit (1942-2017)
analyzed traditional theories of well-being and introduced the
influential distinction between hedonism, desire theories, and
objective list theories.
Another key development was the emergence of positive psychology in
the late 1990s, focusing on human flourishing and optimal functioning
in contrast to the traditional emphasis of psychological research on
illness and dysfunction. The 20th and 21st centuries also saw growing
interest in the relation between well-being, economy, and public
policy, as governments and international organizations began
integrating research on well-being into political decision-making.
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